What are emissions and why are they bad?
Components of air pollution include1: Carbon Monoxide (CO) – reduces the blood’s ability to carry oxygen, aggravates lung and heart disease, and causes headaches, fatigue, and dizziness. Sulfur Dioxides (SOx) – when combined with water vapor in the air become the major contributor to acid rain. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) – cause the yellowish-brown haze over dirty cities, and when combined with oxygen becomes a poisonous gas that can damage lung tissue. Hydrocarbons (HC) are a group of pollutants that react to form ozone (O3), some HCs cause cancer and others can irritate mucous membranes. Ozone (O3) is the white haze or smog seen over many cities. Ozone can irritate the respiratory system, decrease lung function, and aggravate chronic lung diseases (such as asthma). Carbon Dioxide (CO2), although naturally occurring, can cause problems. In large quantities it allows more sunlight to enter the atmosphere than can escape – trapping excess heat that can lead to the “greenhouse effect” and cause global warming. Ozone is a toxic gas, but it’s not emitted directly from tailpipes. Ground-level ozone is formed by a chemical reaction between VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and NOx, released from fuel combustion, in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone concentrations can reach unhealthful levels when the weather is hot and sunny with little or no wind2. Gasoline and diesel powered cars, trucks, and buses are the major sources of NOx and VOCs. Exposure to high levels of ozone causes significantly higher rates of asthma in children. In pregnant women, it can cause a significantly higher rate of babies with birth defects.
According to the American Lung Association3, ozone is a serious threat to public health.
Where do the emissions come from?
Before comparing the emissions associated with vehicles and fuel types, consider the full
fuel cycle. Emissions are generated at each step in this cycle—extraction of raw fuel
(feedstock), transportation, storage, processing, and distribution to the vehicle
itself, or “well-to-tank” emissions; emissions are also generated by the vehicle itself, “tank-to-
wheels”. The full cycle is referred to as “well-to-wheels”.
Vehicles are defined by the level of emissions
(tank-to-wheels) they produce: low-emissions (LEV), ultra-low emissions (ULEV), super lowemissions
(SULEV), partial zero emissions (PZEV), and zero emissions (ZEV). Basically, LEVs,
ULEVs, SULEVs, and PZEVs produce lower vehicle emissions than vehicles built prior to 1972,
but do little to reduce CO2 emissions. PZEVs go a step further than SULEVs by eliminating emissions from the vaporization of fuel in the gas tank and fuel system. Lower emissions levels are achieved by control systems installed on these vehicles. However, these systems degrade over time, which reduces their effectiveness in controlling emissions. ZEVs, on the other hand, produce no emissions and so have no need for emissions systems!
Electric vehicles (EVs) produce zero emissions from the vehicle itself – and are classified as
ZEVs. The only emissions are those released during the generation of electricity (from coal,
natural gas, etc.). However, even those emissions can be eliminated if the electricity is
generated from renewable sources, such as solar or wind! Switching to renewable sources for
electricity generation can reduce all emissions associated with EVs. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, “Despite decades of air pollution control efforts, at least 92 million Americans still live in areas with chronic smog problems.” “Americans are driving more miles each year, partially offsetting the environmental benefits of individual vehicle emissions reductions.” And the mix of vehicles on the road includes a greater number of higher emissions vehicles (trucks and SUVs), making the problem worse. According to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), even when taking into account power plant emissions, EVs are 90% cleaner than the newest (model year 2005) and cleanest conventional gasoline-powered car vehicles6 (not including the environmental impact of oil refining). Emissions from central power plants are easier to control than emissions generated by millions of cars on the road. Future power plants will be more efficient and even cleaner. When they utilize renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, the full “well-to-wheels” emissions for EVs will be zero! It is not possible to achieve zero “well-to-wheels” emissions for a vehicle that uses a gasoline or diesel engine. Many EV drivers have not waited for central power plants to switch to renewable electricity generation. They have installed photovoltaic cells on their homes to generate clean electricity from the sun today! With EVs you actually have an option for fuel sources (for electric generation) – including renewable sources – with gasoline-powered vehicles there are no other options – only gasoline. Finite Resources With 4% of Earth’s population, the US consumes 25% of the world’s total oil production. According to “Peak Oil: An Outlook on Crude Oil Depletion”: 1) oil discovery peaked in the 1960s; 2) we now find 1 barrel of oil for every 4 we consume; 3) Middle East share of production is set to rise (short-term); 4) the rest of world production peaked in 1997, and is therefore in terminal decline. This decline of global How Far Does Your Money Go? Since most of our oil is imported, your gasoline money goes pretty far – overseas, that is. Electricity is much cheaper than gasoline, and is generated locally. The energy equivalent of one gallon of gasoline is 33.53 kWh of electricity (GGE)9. However, 1 GGE of electricity in an EV takes you 110 miles. Over 2 times farther than an HEV, and 11 times farther than a fullsize SUV. An EV simply takes your money farther. Let’s use a conservative price for gas. 2004 $/GGE Miles/GGE $/mile Miles/GGE Efficiency Relative to an EV Full Size SUV $2.00 10 $0.200 11X worse than EV Mid-Size SUV $2.00 17 $0.118 6.5X worse than EV Mid-Size Sedan $2.00 22 $0.091 5X worse than EV Compact Sedan $2.00 32 $0.063 3.5X worse than EV Hybrid (HEV) $2.00 50 $0.040 2.2X worse than EV EV (peak electricity) $4.15 110 $0.038 1 What Can You Do? Everyday choices make a difference. Drive Less. Use alternative forms of transportation, including public transportation, bike, walk, or telecommute. People are driving more than ever. The total Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) is increasing rapidly. In California, VMT increased 93% from 1980 to 2000, while the population only increased by 37%; and VMT is projected to increase another 70% over the next 25 years. Drive Different. Drive alternative-fuel vehicles, including vehicles powered by electricity, compressed natural gas (CNG), and bio-diesel. Take the Clean Car Pledge that your next car will be the highest mileage and “greenest” possible. Why Electric Vehicles? EVs (electric vehicles) produce zero tailpipe emissions and up to 99% lower emissions than gasoline and diesel vehicles. EVs help America reduce its dependence on oil. Thousands of EVs are registered across the country. New battery technology gives fullfunction EVs ranges of 80-120 miles per charge traveling at highway speeds. An EV fits perfectly into multi-car households; the EV for everyday travel, and a hybrid or conventional car for extended trips. Studies have shown that 80% of commuters travel less than 40 miles per day. How about you? Could 100 mile range and convenient refueling at home meet your daily driving needs? We know there is a market for EVs. Every EV produced is immediately sold or leased! EVs are high performance vehicles and priced competitively when measured against comparable gasoline-powered vehicles. In addition, fuel and maintenance expenses are significantly lower for EVs. And talk about lasting value, an electric drive motor provides as many as 1,000,000 miles of service. The initial purchase price for EVs will drop as production volume increases. Prices always go down as volume goes up - Henry Ford knew that long ago! In the meantime, EV owners enjoy the financial benefits of significantly lower fuel and maintenance expenses. EVs are a clean, efficient alternative to conventional vehicles – using technology readily available today! EVs, Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles There are primarily three electric vehicle technologies in America today: electric vehicles (EV), hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles (Hybrid), and Fuel Cell vehicles. EVs draw electricity from batteries to power an electric motor to propel the vehicle, generating zero emissions. Hybrid gas/electric vehicles use both a battery-powered electric motor and a conventional gasoline-powered engine for propulsion. Hybrids generate tailpipe emissions, but less than its gasoline counterpart. Fuel cell vehicles use an onboard fuel cell to generate electricity to power an electric motor to propel the vehicle. Fuel Cell vehicles are emissions free, but decades away from a commercial market. EV technology is at the core of all three. But a big difference between EVs, Hybrids, and Fuel Cell vehicles is the method used to generate the electricity that powers them. The batteries in an EV are charged using standard household electricity and electricity captured by regenerative braking. An EV can be ‘filled-up’ at home. The battery in a Hybrid is charged internally by electricity generated by the gasoline engine and electricity captured by regenerative braking. A Hybrid can be ‘filled-up’ at the neighborhood gas station. The electricity that propels a Fuel Cell Vehicle is generated from the combustion of hydrogen in its onboard fuel cell. There is no infrastructure for dispensing hydrogen into vehicles; therefore, while this vehicle technology is promising, it is not yet practical. Earth’s Finite Resources US oil production has been declining since 1970 (since 1998 in Alaska) and US imports have risen by 67% since 19701. The Union of Concerned Scientists states the US (4% of the earth’s population) consumes 25% of the world’s total oil production2. Our demand grows daily. We must have alternatives! Electric Vehicle Information Why EVs? EVs offer the best and cheapest alternative to petroleum-based transportation. Driving an EV helps improve the quality of life for all Americans. They are fun to drive. It is patriotic! Can EVs go fast? Yes! For real speed, check out the National Electric Drag Racing Association (nedra.com). EVs just move the pollution, don’t they? No. Even including the effects of electricity generation, the California Air Resources Board reports that EVs are 90% cleaner than the newest (model year 2005) and cleanest conventional gasoline-powered car vehicles3 – not including the environmental impact of oil refining! EVs are a proven “clean and green” choice. Are EVs practical? Yes. Studies show that 80% of daily commuting is less than 40 miles. Internal combustion vehicles generate the greatest amount of pollution during the first 20 minutes of operation. EVs require no warm-up period and are the perfect transportation option. Where do you “fill up” an EV? EVs are primarily charged at home overnight, using surplus (low-cost) electricity. There are also many public charging locations (evchargernews.com). Are EVs expensive to purchase? Not when you consider the total lifetime costs4. As production volumes increase, EVs will cost no more than conventional cars and trucks in every price range. Many states and the federal government recognize this low-volume pricing issue and offer incentives to reduce the initial cost of buying or leasing an EV. Currently there are no EVs available from the major auto makers. Toyota’s RAV4-EV stopped production in Nov 2002 when they sold their last one. Used EVs are sometimes available. Keep an eye on companies like Commuter Cars – they’re taking orders today for a Tango. Are EVs expensive to operate? No. A Toyota RAV4-EV costs less than 3 cents/mile to operate. EVs are nearly maintenance free (no smog checks, oil changes, or tune-ups). At $2.00 per gallon, a gasoline-powered car must average 67 mpg to match this! And today’s gas prices are higher than $2.00/gal! A little background In the late 1890s electric vehicles (EVs) outsold gasoline cars ten to one. EVs dominated the roads and dealer showrooms. Some automobile companies, like Oldsmobile and Studebaker actually started out as successful EV companies, only later transitioning to gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, the first car dealerships were exclusively for EVs. Early production of EVs, like all cars, was accomplished by hand assembly. In 1910, volume production of gasoline powered cars was achieved with the motorized assembly line. This breakthrough manufacturing process killed off all but the most well-financed car builders. Independents, unable to buy components in volume died off. The infrastructure for electricity was almost non-existent outside of city boundaries – limiting EVs to city-only travel. Another contributing factor to the decline of EVs was the addition of an electric motor (called the starter) to gasoline powered cars – finally removing the need for the difficult and dangerous crank to start the engine. Due to these factors, by the end of World War I, production of electric cars stopped and EVs became niche vehicles – serving as taxis, trucks, delivery vans, and freight handlers. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was a rebirth of EVs prompted by concerns about air pollution and the OPEC oil embargo. In the early 1990s, a few major automakers resumed production of EVs – prompted by California’s landmark Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Mandate. Those EVs were produced in very low volumes – essentially hand-built like their early predecessors. However, as the ZEV mandate was weakened over the years, the automakers stopped making EVs – Toyota was the last major auto maker to stop EV production in 2003. Timeline 1834: Thomas Davenport invents the battery electric car – batteries were not rechargeable. 1859: Gaston Plante invented rechargeable lead-acid batteries. 1889: Thomas Edison built an EV using nickel-alkaline batteries. 1895: First auto race in America, won by an EV. 1896: First car dealer – EVs. 1897: First vehicle with power steering – an EV. Electric self-starters 20 years before appearing in gas-powered cars. 1898: NYC blizzard, only EVs were capable of transport on the roads. First woman to buy a car – it was an EV. 1900: NYC’s huge pollution problem – horses. 2.5 million pounds of manure, 60,000 gallons of urine daily on the streets; 15,000 dead horses removed from the streets each year. 1900: All cars produced: 33% steam cars, 33% EV, and 33% gasoline cars. 1903: First speeding ticket – it was earned in an EV. 1904: America has only 7% of the 2 million miles of roads better than dirt – only 141 miles, or less than one mile in 10,000 was “paved”. 1908: Henry Ford buys his wife an EV. Many socialites of that time gave this rousing endorsement for EVs, “It never fails me.” 1912: 38,842 EVs on the road. Horse drawn “tankers” deliver gasoline to gas stations. 1913: Self starter for gas cars (10 years later for the Model-T). 1921: Federal Highway Act. By 1922, federal match (50%) for highway construction and repair (for mail delivery). Before this, roads were considered only “feeders” to railroads, and left to the local jurisdiction to fund. 1956: National System of Interstate and Defense Highways. Funded 90% by states, and 90% by the federal government. 1957: Sputnik is launched. The US space program initiates advanced battery R&D. 1966: Gallup poll: 36 million really interested in EVs. At the time EVs had a top speed of 40 mph, and typical range less than 50 miles. 1967: Walter Laski founds the Electric Auto Association. 1968-1978: Congress passes more regulatory statues than ever before due to health risks associated with cars: collisions, dirty air. 1972: First Annual EAA EV rally. 1974: CitiCar debut at Electric Vehicle Symposium in Washington, DC. By 1975, Vanguard- Sebring, maker of the CitiCar is the 6th largest auto maker in the US. 1990: California establishes the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Mandate; requires 2% of vehicles to be ZEVs by 1998, 10% ZEVs by 2003. 1990: GM shows their production EV initially named, Impact; later it was re-named the EV-1. 1990: US government spent $194 million on all energy efficient research. Much less than the $1 billion for a single day of Desert Storm, or the $1 billion per week of 2003 Iraq conflict. 1993: GM estimated that it would take 3 months to collect names of 5,000 people interested in the EV-1 – it only took one week! 1995: Renaissance Cars, Inc begins production of the Tropica. 1996: EAA helps to hatch CALSTART incubator (for EV research) in Alameda, CA. 1996: GM begins production of the EV-1 (formerly called the Impact). 1997: Toyota Prius hybrid gas-electric vehicle unveiled at the Tokyo Auto Show. 2002: Toyota RAV4-EV retail sales; their estimated 2-year supply sold out in 8 months. 2003: ZEV Mandate weakened to allow ZEV credits for non-ZEVs. Only requires 250 fuel-cell vehicles by 2009. Toyota stops production of the RAV4-EV; Honda stops lease renewals of the EV-Plus; GM does the same for the EV-1. 2003: AC Propulsion’s tZero earns highest grade at the Michelin Challenge Bibendum; tZero specs: 300 miles per charge, 0-60mph in 3.6 seconds, 100 mph top speed. 2005: Commuter Cars’ Tango.
Oil production has been declining since 1970 while US imports have risen by 67% since 1970.
petroleum is not a re-run of the oil shocks of the 1970s. This decline in production is driven
by resource constraints, not politics, and is a permanent (not temporary) condition.
EV (off-peak, $0.075/kWh) $2.66 110 $0.022 1
1910: Motorized assembly produces gas-powered cars in volume; reducing cost per vehicle.
2007: Eco-conversions produces it's first luxury conversion. A NiZn battery powered BMW 840 Ci.
